Qualities of Human Resource manager

Qualities of Human Resource manager

1. Creativity

Creativity is what separates competence from excellence. Creativity is the spark that propels projects forward and that captures peoples' attention. Creativity is the ingredient that pulls the different pieces together into a cohesive whole, adding zest and appeal in the process.

2. Structure

The context and structure we work within always have a set of parameters, limitations and guidelines. A stellar manager knows how to work within the structure and not let the structure impinge upon the process or the project. Know the structure intimately, so as to guide others to effectively work within the given parameters. Do this to expand beyond the boundaries.

3. Intuition

Intuition is the capacity of knowing without the use of rational processes; it's the cornerstone of emotional intelligence. People with keen insight are often able to sense what others are feeling and thinking; consequently, they're able to respond perfectly to another through their deeper understanding. The stronger one's intuition, the stronger manager one will be.

4. Knowledge

 A thorough knowledge base is essential. The knowledge base must be so ingrained and integrated into their being that they become *transparent, * focusing on the employee and what s/he needs to learn, versus focusing on the knowledge base. The excellent manager lives from a knowledge base, without having to draw attention to it.

5. Commitment

 A manager is committed to the success of the project and of all team members. She/he holds the vision for the collective team and moves the team closer to the end result. It's the manager's commitment that pulls the team forward during trying times.

6. Being Human

Employees value leaders who are human and who do not hide behind their authority. The best leaders are those who aren't afraid to be themselves. Managers who respect and connect with others on a human level inspire great loyalty.

7. Versatility

 Flexibility and versatility are valuable qualities in a manager. Beneath the flexibility and versatility is an ability to be both non-reactive and not attached to how things have to be. Versatility implies an openness ¬ this openness allows the leader to quickly *change on a dime* when necessary. Flexibility and versatility are the pathways to speedy responsiveness.

8. Discipline/Focus

 Discipline is the ability to choose and live from what one pays attention to. Discipline as self-mastery can be exhilarating! Role model the ability to live from your intention consistently and you'll role model an important leadership quality. 

STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Strategy:

“Strategy is a way of doing something. It includes the formulation of goals and set of action plans for accomplishment of that goal.”

Strategic Management:

“A Process of formulating, implementing and evaluating business strategies to achieve organizational objectives is called Strategic Management”.

Definition of Strategic Management: -

“Strategic Management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determine the long-term performance of a corporation. It includes environmental scanning, strategy formulation, strategy implementation and evaluation and control.”

Steps in Strategic Management:

1.               Environmental Scanning: Analyze the Opportunities and Threats in External Environment

2.               Strategy Formulation: Formulate Strategies to match Strengths and Weaknesses. It can be done at Corporate level, Business Unit Level and Functional Level.

3.               Strategy Implementation: Implement the Strategies

4.               Evaluation & Control: Ensure the organizational objectives are met. 

भारत और विश्‍व

भारत की विदेश नीति में देश के विवेकपूर्ण स्‍व-हित की रक्षा करने पर बल दिया जाता है। भारत की विदेश नीति का प्राथमिक उद्देश्‍य शांतिपूर्ण स्थिर बाहरी परिवेश को बढ़ावा देना और उसे बनाए रखना है, जिसमें समग्र आर्थिक और गरीबी उन्‍मूलन के घरेलू लक्ष्‍यों को तेजी से और बाधाओं से मुक्‍त माहौल में आगे बढ़ाया जा सकें। सरकार द्वारा सामाजिक- आर्थिक विकास को उच्‍च प्राथमिकता दिए जाने को देखते हुए, क्षेत्रीय और वैश्विक दोनों ही स्‍तरों पर सहयोगपूर्ण बाहरी वातावरण कायम करने में भारत की महत्‍वपूर्ण भूमिका है। इसलिए, भारत अपने चारों ओर शांतिपूर्ण माहौल बनाने के प्रयास करता है। और अपने विस्‍तारित पास-पड़ोस में बेहतर मेल-जोल के लिए काम करता है। भारत की विदेश नीति में इस बात को भली-भांति समझा गया है। कि जलवायु परिवर्तन ऊर्जा उनके समाधान के लिए वैश्विक सहयोग अनिवार्य है।बीते वर्ष में कई रचनात्‍मक कार्य हुए, कुछ महत्‍वपूर्ण सफलताएं हासिल की गई, और भारत की नीति के समक्ष कुछ नयी चुनौतियां भी सामने आयींपड़ोसी देशों के साथ भारत की साझा नीति है। वर्ष के दौरान भूटान में महामहिम के राज्‍यभिषेक और लोकतंत्र की स्‍थापना से इस देश के साथ भारत के संबंधो का और विकास हुआ। भारत ने लोकतांत्रिक राजसत्‍ता में नेपाल के रूपान्‍तरण और बांग्‍लादेश में लोकतंत्र की बहाली का जोरदार समर्थन किया भारत ने अफगानिस्‍तान के निर्माण और विकास में योगदान किया है पड़ोसी देशों के साथ मित्रतापूर्ण और घनिष्‍ठ द्विपक्षीय संबंध बनाए रखने के अलावा, भारत ने सार्क (दक्षिण एशियाई क्षेत्रीय सहयोग संगठन) को एक ऐसे परिणामोन्‍मुखी संगठन के रूप में विकसित करने की लिए भी काम किया है, जो क्षेत्रीय एकीकरण को प्रभावकारी ढंग से प्रोत्‍साहित कर सके।जनवरी, 2008 में प्रधानमंत्री डा. मनमोहन सिंह की चीन की सरकारी यात्रा और जून, 2008 में विदेश मंत्री श्री प्रणव मुखर्जी की चीन-यात्रा के साथ द्विपक्षीय संबंध और मजबूत हुए। भारत चीन सीमा पर स्थिति शांतिपूर्ण रही जबकि विशेष प्रतिनिधियों द्वारा सीमा विवाद के समाधान के प्रयास जारी रहे। दोनों देशों के बीच रक्षा सहयोग से आपसी विश्‍वास बढ़ाने में मदद मिली चीन ने सितंबर, 2008 में कोलकाता में नए वाणिज्‍य दूतावास की स्‍थापना की और इससे पहले भारत ने जून, 2008 ग्वांझो (Guangzhou) में वाणिज्‍य दूतावास खोला था।एक प्रमुख उपलब्धि अक्‍टूबर, 2008 में भारत- अमेरिका सिविल परमाणु समझौते पर हस्‍ताक्षर किए जाने के रूप में सामने आयी। इस समझौते से परमाणु क्षेत्र में भारत को व‍ह प्रौद्योगिकी मिलने का रास्‍ता साफ हो गया, जिससे वह पिछले तीन दशक से वंचित था। इस द्विपक्षीय समझौते पर हस्‍ताक्षर होने के बाद भारत ने असैनिक परमाणु सहयोग के बारे में फ्रांस, रूस और कज़ाकिस्‍तान के साथ ऐसे ही समझौते पर हस्‍ताक्षर किए। भारत-अमरीकी महत्‍वपूर्ण भागीदारी को सितंबर 2008 में प्रधान मंत्री मनमोहन सिंह की अमेरिका यात्रा से और भी बल मिला, जब उन्‍होनें वाशिंगटन में अमरीकी राष्‍ट्रपति जोर्ज डब्‍लू बुश के साथ द्विपक्षीय बैठक और नवंबर में जी-20 शिखर सम्‍मेलन के अवसर पर भी श्री बुश से भेंट की। अमेरिका भारत का सबसे व्‍यापार भागीदार और प्रौद्योगिकी का स्रोत रहा है।वर्ष के दौरान रूस के साथ भारत की परमंपरागत मित्रता और सामरिक संबंध और मजबूत किए गए। रूसी परिसंघ श्री दिमित्री मेदवेदेव ने दिसंबर 2008 में वार्षिक शिखर बैठक के लिए भारत की सरकारी यात्रा की। वर्ष 2008 को भारत में रूस के वर्ष रूप में मनाया गया वर्ष 2009 रूस में भारत के वर्ष के रूप में मनाया जा रहा है। रूस के साथ अपने सामरिक संबंध एव सांस्‍‍कृतिक संबंधो को और मजबूत करना चा‍हता है तथा इस क्षेत्र के साथ और भी घनिष्‍ठ रूप में जुड़ना चाहता है ताकि यह सुनिश्चित किया जा सके कि मध्‍य एशियाई देशों के सहयोग अधिक वास्‍तविक और विविधतापूर्ण हो सके।भारत ने प्रतिरक्षा और सुरक्षा, परमाणु एवं अंतरिक्ष, व्‍यापार एवं निवेश ऊर्जा, जलवायु परिवर्तन विज्ञान एवं प्रौद्योगिकी, संस्‍‍‍कृति और शिक्षा जैसे विविध क्षेत्रों में ए‍क महत्‍वपूर्ण भागीदार, यूरोपीय संघ किए है। यूरोपीय संघ भारत का सबसे बड़ा व्‍यापारिक भागीदार और निवेश प्रमुख स्रोतों में से एक है।भारत ने अफ्रीका देशों के साथ अपने पंरपरागत मैत्रीपूर्ण और सहयोगात्‍मक संबंधों को महत्‍व देना जारी रखा है। इस संदर्भ में अप्रैल, 2008 मे भारत-अफ्रीका मंच का प्रथम शिखर सम्‍मेलन एक ऐतिहासिक घटना थी, जिसमें दिल्‍ली घोषणा पारित की गई और स‍हयोग के लिए भारत-अफ्रीका फ्रेमवर्क किया गया ये दोनों दस्‍तावेज भारत और अफ्रीका के बीच सहयोग की भावी रूप-रेखा को परिभाषित करते हैं। विदेश मंत्री श्री प्रणव मुखर्जी ने 26 फरवरी,2009 को नई दिल्‍ली में भारत की प्रतिष्टित परियोजना पैन-अफ्रीकन ई-नेटवर्क का उद्घाटन किया।लैटिन अमरीकी और कैरिबियाई क्षेत्र के देशों के साथ सुदृढ़ संबंध कायम करने के भारत के प्रयासों के हाल के वर्षो में प्रभावशाली परिणाम सामने आये हैं। इन देशों के साथ विभिन्‍न स्‍तरों पर प्रतिनिधिक-क्षेत्रगत वार्ताएं हुई है। और आपसी लाभप्रद सहयोग के लिए संस्‍थागत व्‍यवस्‍था का फ्रेमवर्क तैयार हुआ है।पश्चिमी एशिया और खाड़ी क्षेत्र के देशों के साथ भारत के सहयोग का स्‍वरूप समसामयिक रहा है, जिसमें बाहरी आंतरिक शांतिपूर्ण उपयोग और भारतीय प्रक्षेपण यानों का इस्‍तेमाल शामिल है। इस क्षेत्र में भारत से जाकर बसे करीब 50 लाख प्रवासी रहते हैं, जिन्‍होंने भारत और खाड़ी क्षेत्र, दोनों के आर्थिक विकास में महत्‍वपूर्ण योगदान किया है।भारत आसियान और एशिया-प्रशांत क्षेत्र के देशों के साथ सहयोग को 21वीं सदी में अपनी कूटनीति का महत्‍तवपूर्ण आयाम समझता है, जो भारत की लुक ईस्‍ट पॉलिसी यानी पूरब की ओर देखो नीति में स्‍पष्‍ट रूप से झलकता है।2009 में, भारत ने अपने आर्थिक एवं तकनीकी सहयोग के नेटवर्क का महत्‍वपूर्ण विस्‍तार किया है। हाल में गठित मंचों, जैसे आईआरसी (भारत-रूस-चीन), ब्रिक (ब्राजील-रूस-भारत-चीन) और इब्‍सा (भारत-ब्राजील-दक्षिण अफ्रीका) में भारत महत्‍वपूर्ण भूमिका अदा करने के लिए तैयार है। भारत ने आसियान पूर्वी एशिया शिखर सम्‍मेलन बीआईएमएसटीईसी (बिम्‍सटेक), मेकांग-गंगा सहयोग, जी-15 और जी-8 जैसे आर्थिक संगठनों के साथ जुड़ने के निरन्‍तर प्रयास किए हैं।बहुराष्‍ट्रवाद के प्रति सुदृढ़ प्रतिबतद्धता रखते हुए भारत ने संयुक्‍त राष्‍ट्र सुरक्षा को मजबूत बनाने में योगदान किया है। भारत ने संयुक्‍त राष्‍ट्र परिषद में सुधार और यूएनजीए के पुनरूत्‍थान के प्रस्‍तावों का समर्थन किया है। भारत चाहता है कि विकासशील देशों और उभरती ताकतों की उचित आकांक्षाओं को देखते हुए वैश्विक संस्‍थान विश्‍व-व्‍यवस्‍था की नई वास्‍तविकाताओं के अनुरूप बनें।इन रचनात्‍मक गतिविधियों के साथ-साथ देश के आंतकवाद पीडित स्‍थानों और सीमा-पारी के आंतकवाद से भारत की अस्थिर सुरक्षा सहित राष्‍ट्र की सुरक्षा की दृष्टि से 2008-09 में भारत की विदेशी नीति को नए खतरों का सामना करना पड़ा।2008-09 में पाकिस्‍तान के साथ समग्र वार्ता पांचवे दौर में पहुची। यह वार्ता पाकिस्‍तान के इस घोषित वायदे पर आधरित थी कि वह किसी भी तरह से भारत के खिलाफ आंतकवाद के लिए अपने नियंत्रण वाली भूमिका का इस्‍तेमाल करने की अनुमति नहीं देगा। किंतु जुलाई, 2008 में काबुल मे भारतीय दूतावास पर और नवंबर, 2008 में मुंबई पर पाकिस्‍तान की धरती से किए गए आंतकवादी हमलों से यह सिद्ध हो गया कि पाकिस्‍तान अपना वायदा निभाने में सक्षम नहीं रहा है। इसे देखते हुए वार्ता प्रक्रिया निलंबित होना स्‍वाभविक थी।मुंबई हमलों की विश्‍वभर में अंतर्राष्‍ट्रीय समुदाय ने निंदा की। पाकिस्‍तान और पूरी दुनिया के समक्ष इस बात के ठोस सबूत किए गए कि इन हमलों की साजिश में पाकिस्‍तानी नागरिक शामिल थे और उन्‍होंने ही हमलों को अंजाम दिया। किंतु पाकिस्‍तान की परवर्ती कार्रवाइयां विलंबकारी और भ्रम फैलाने वाली रही और यही वजह है कि वह अभी तक हमलों की साजिश रचने वालों को दंडित नहीं करा पाया है अथवा पाकिस्‍तान की धरती से भारत के खिलाफ चलाए जा रहे आंतकवाद के ढ़ाचे को नष्‍ट नहीं कर पाया है।2008 में श्रीलंका में एलटीटीई की पंरपरागत सैन्‍य क्षमता को समाप्‍त करने के लिए बड़े पैमाने पर सैन्‍य अभियान चलाए गए, जिसमें बड़ा मानवीय संकट पैदा हुआ। भारत न वहां के नागरिकों और आंतरिक रूप में विस्‍थापित व्‍यक्तियों के लिए राहत आपूर्ति तथा चिकित्‍सा सहायता के राजनीतिक संकट में श्रीलंका की सहायता करने के प्रयास भी निरंतर जारी से जातीय समस्‍या के राजनीतिक समाधान में प्रवेश को देखते हुए, भारत एकीकृत श्रीलंका के फ्रेमवर्क के भीतर मुदृदों के ऐसे शांतिपूर्ण समाधान के लिए काम करेगा, जो विशेष रूप से तमिलों सहित देश के सभी समुदायों को स्‍वीकार्य हो।वर्ष के दौरान अन्‍य चुनौती बिगड़ती हुई अंतर्राष्‍ट्रीय आर्थिक स्थिति थी। अंतराष्‍ट्रीय वित्‍तीय संकट ने आर्थिक संकट का रूप ले लिया क्‍योंकि प्रमुख प्रश्चिमी अर्थव्‍यवस्‍थाओं और बाजारों में मंदी छा जाने से भारत के विकास में सहायक अंतराष्‍ट्रीय माहौल तेजी से बदल गया। इसके बावजूद भारतीय अर्थव्‍यवस्‍था में 2008-2009 के दौरान 6.7 प्रतिशत की वृद्धि दर्ज हुई, और वह विश्‍व अर्थव्‍यवस्‍था में वृद्धि एवं स्थिरता का घटक बनी है। संकट से निबटने के जी-20 देशों जैसे, अंतर्राष्‍ट्रीय प्रयासों में भारत ने सक्रिय भूमिका अदा की, ताकि विकासशील देशों के हितों की रक्षा की जा सके भारत ने य‍ह सुनिश्चित करने का प्रयास भी किया कि वैश्विक आर्थिक मुदृदों के बारे में निर्णय करने वाली अंतर्राष्‍ट्रीय व्‍यवस्‍था लोकतांत्रिक हो जो मौजूदा वास्‍तविकताओं को व्‍यक्‍त करे।वर्ष 2008 की समाप्ति पर यह स्‍पष्‍ट हो गया कि भारत के भविष्‍य पर दुष्‍प्रभाव डालने वाले प्रमुख अंतर्राष्‍ट्रीय मुदृदों जैसे वैश्विक और स्‍थायी विकास, के हल के लिए सहयागपूर्ण वैश्विक समाधान अनिवार्य है। इन समाधनों को कार्य रूप प्रदान करने के अं‍तर्राष्‍ट्रीय प्रयासों में भारत की सक्रिय एवं भागीदारीपूर्ण भूमिका रही है। भारत उन्‍हें सफल बनाने में निरंतर योगदान करता रहेगा

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भारत का इतिहास

प्राचीन इतिहास

भारत का इतिहास और संस्‍कृति गतिशील है और यह मानव सभ्‍यता की शुरूआत तक जाती है। यह सिंधु घाटी की रहस्‍यमयी संस्‍कृति से शुरू होती है और भारत के दक्षिणी इलाकों में किसान समुदाय तक जाती है। भारत के इतिहास में भारत के आस पास स्थित अनेक संस्‍कृतियों से लोगों का निरंतर समेकन होता रहा है। उपलब्‍ध साक्ष्‍य सुझाते हैं कि लोहे, तांबे और अन्‍य धातुओं के उपयोग काफी शुरूआती समय में भी भारतीय उप महाद्वीप में प्रचलित थे, जो दुनिया के इस हिस्‍से द्वारा की गई प्रगति का संकेत है। चौंथी सहस्राब्दि बी. सी. के अंत तक भारत एक अत्‍यंत विकसित सभ्‍यता के क्षेत्र के रूप में उभर चुका था।

सिंधु घाटी की सभ्‍यता

भारत का इतिहास सिंधु घाटी की सभ्‍यता के जन्‍म के साथ आरंभ हुआ, और अधिक बारीकी से कहा जाए तो हड़प्‍पा सभ्‍यता के समय इसकी शुरूआत मानी जाती है। यह दक्षिण एशिया के पश्चिमी हिस्‍से में लगभग 2500 बीसी में फली फूली, जिसे आज पाकिस्‍तान और पश्चिमी भारत कहा जाता है। सिंधु घाटी मिश्र, मेसोपोटामिया, भारत और चीन की चार प्राचीन शहरी सबसे बड़ी सभ्‍यताओं का घर थी। इस सभ्‍यता के बारे में 1920 तक कुछ भी ज्ञात नहीं था, जब भारतीय पुरातात्विक विभाग ने सिंधु घाटी की खुदाई का कार्य आरंभ किया, जिसमें दो पुराने शहरों अर्थात मोहन जोदाड़ो और हड़प्‍पा के भग्‍नावशेष निकल कर आए। भवनों के टूटे हुए हिस्‍से और अन्‍य वस्‍तुएं जैसे कि घरेलू सामान, युद्ध के हथियार, सोने और चांदी के आभूषण, मुहर, खिलौने, बर्तन आदि दर्शाते हैं कि इस क्षेत्र में लगभग पांच हजार साल पहले एक अत्‍यंत उच्‍च विकसित सभ्‍यता फली फूली।

सिंधु घाटी की सभ्‍यता मूलत: एक शहरी सभ्‍यता थी और यहां रहने वाले लोग एक सुयोजनाबद्ध और सुनिर्मित कस्‍बों में रहा करते थे, जो व्‍यापार के केन्‍द्र भी थे। मोहन जोदाड़ो और हड़प्‍पा के भग्‍नाव‍शेष दर्शाते हैं कि ये भव्‍य व्‍यापारिक शहर वैज्ञानिक दृष्टि से बनाए गए थे और इनकी देखभाल अच्‍छी तरह की जाती थी। यहां चौड़ी सड़कें और एक सुविकसित निकास प्रणाली थी। घर पकाई गई ईंटों से बने होते थे और इनमें दो या दो से अधिक मंजिलें होती थी।

उच्‍च विकसित सभ्‍यता हड़प्‍पा में अनाज, गेहूं और जौ उगाने की कला ज्ञात थी, जिससे वे अपना मोटा भोजन तैयार करते थे। उन्‍होंने सब्जियों और फल तथा मांस, सुअर और अण्‍डे का सेवन भी किया। साक्ष्‍य सुझाव देते हैं कि ये ऊनी तथा सूती कपड़े पहनते थे। वर्ष 1500 से बी सी तक हड़प्‍पन सभ्‍यता का अंत हो गया। सिंधु घाटी की सभ्‍यता के नष्‍ट हो जाने के प्रति प्रचलित अनेक कारणों में शामिल है आर्यों द्वारा आक्रमण, लगातार बाढ़ और अन्‍य प्राकृतिक विपदाओं का आना जैसे कि भूकंप आदि।

Timur's Invasion

Timur's Invasion

It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without much resistance.

Sayyid Dynasty

Then came the Sayyid dynasty founded by Khizar Khan. The Sayyids ruled from about 1414 A.D. to 1450 A.D. Khizar Khan ruled for about 37 years. Last in Sayyid dynasty was Muhammad-bin-Farid. During his reign there was confusion and revolts. The empire came to an end in 1451 A.D. with his death.

Lodhi Dynasty

Buhlul Khan Lodhi (1451-1489 A.D.)

He was the first king and the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. With a view to restoring the Delhi Sultanate its past glory, he conquered many territories including the powerful kingdom of Jaunpur. Buhlul Khan extended his territories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and Uttar Pradesh.

Sikander Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

After Buhlul Khan's death, his second son Nizam Shah was proclaimed the king, under the title of Sultan Sikander Shah, in 1489. He made all efforts to strengthen his kingdom and extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar. He was a good administrator and a patron of arts and letters. He died in 1517 A.D.

Ibrahim Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

After the death of Sikandar, his son Ibrahim ascended the throne. Ibrahim Lodhi did not prove to be an able ruler. He became more and more strict with the nobles. He used to insult them. Thus, to take revenge of their insults, Daulat Khan Lodhi, governor of Lahore and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babar, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed at Panipat in 1526 A.D. by Babar's army. Thus came the final collapse of Delhi Sultanate and paved the establishment of Mughal Empire in India.

Bahmani Kingdom

The Muslim kingdom of Bahmani was established by some nobles of the Deccan who revolted against the repressive policies of Sultan Muhammed Tughlaq. In 1347, Hasan became the king under the title Abdul Muzaffar Ala-Ud-Din Bahman Shah and founded the Bahmani dynasty. This dynasty lasted for about 175 years and had 18 rulers. At the height of its glory, the Bahmani kingdom extended from north of Krishna river up to Narmada, and stretched east-west from the coasts of the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. The rulers of Bahmani were often at war with the neighbouring Hindu kingdom Vijayanagar.

The most distinguished figure of the Bahmani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan, who was the principal minister of the state - Amir-ul-ulmra for over two decades. He fought many wars, subdued many kings and annexed many territories to the Bahmani kingdom. Within the kingdom, he improved the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education, reformed revenue system, disciplined army and removed corruption. A man of character and integrity, he was held in high esteem by the Deccani group of nobles, especially Nizam-ul-Mulk, and their machinations led to his execution. With this, started the decline of the Bahmani empire, which came to an end with the death of its last king Kalimullah in 1527. Thereafter, Bahmani Empire was disintegrated into five regional independent principalities - Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and Golkonda.

Vijayanagar Empire

Vijayanagar Empire

When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu princes, Harihar and Bukka founded an independent kingdom in the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336. They soon established their sway over the entire territory between the rivers Krishna in the north and Cauveri in the south. The rising powers of the Vijayanagar empire brought it into clash with many powers and they frequently fought wars with the Bahmani kingdom.

The most famous king of the Vijaynagara Empire was Krishnadeva Raya. The Vijayanagar kingdom reached the pinnacle of its glory during his reign. He was successful in all the wars he waged. He defeated the king of Odisha and annexed Vijaywada and Rajmahendri.

Krishnadeva Raya encouraged trade with the western countries. He had a cordial relationship with the Portuguese who had at that time established trade centres on the west coast of India. He was not only a great warrior, but was also a playwright and a great patron of learning. Telegu literature flourished under him. Painting, sculpture, dance and music were greatly encouraged by him and his successors. He endeared himself to the people by his personal charm, kindness, and an ideal administration.

The decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom began with the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. The kingdom came to an end in 1565, when Ramrai was defeated at Talikota by the joint efforts of Adilshahi, Nizamshahi, Qutubshahi and Baridshahi. After this, the kingdom broke into small states.

Bhakti Movement

An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution in society brought about by a galaxy of socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement. This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of Indian subcontinent. For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700). The leader of this Hindu revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great thinker and a distinguished philosopher. And this movement was propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram, Jayadeva. The movement's major achievement was its abolition of idol worship.

The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda. Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15^th century. He taught that Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his sacred name.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in 16^th century Bengal. A great proponent of loving devotion for God, bhakti yoga, Chaitanya worshiped the Lord in the form of Krishna.

Sri Ramanuja Acharya was an Indian philosopher and is recognized as the most important saint of Sri Vaishnavism. Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India. He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and devotion. His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste among his followers.

Followers of Bhakti movement in 12^th and 13^th Century included saints such as Bhagat Namdev, and Saint Kabir Das, who insisted on the devotional singing of praises of lord through their own compositions.

Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, too was a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social reformer. He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals. He preached the unity of God and condemned formalism and ritualism of both Islam and Hinduism. Guru Nanak's gospel was for all men. He proclaimed their equality in all respects.

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued to witness the rise of many religious reformers. The exponent of the Rama cult and the Krishna cult among the Vaishnavas branched off into a number of sects and creeds. The leading light of the Rama cult was saint-poet Tulsidas. He was a very great scholar and had made a profound study of Indian philosophy and literature. His great poem, 'Ramacharitamanasa', popularly called Tulsi-krita Ramayana is very popular among the Hindu devotees. He set before the people the image of Sri Rama as all virtuous, all powerful, the Lord of the World, and the very embodiment of the Supreme Reality (Parabrahma).

The followers of the Krishna cult founded the Radha Ballabhi sect under Hari Vamsa in 1585 A.D. Sur Das wrote 'Sursagar' in Brajbhasha, which is full of verses of the charm of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha.

Sufism

The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Faqir are used for Muslim saints who attempted to achieve development of their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial. By the 12^th century A.D., Sufism had become a universal aspect of Islamic social life as its influence extended over almost the entire Muslim community.

Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side of Islam or the mystical dimension of Muslim religion. However, the Sufi saints transcending all religious and communal distinctions, worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' and Sufis are the 'Ashiqs'.

Sufism crystallized itself into various 'Silsilahs' or orders. The 4 most popular among these were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.

Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy and endeavoured to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the only and the ultimate goal. At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men of their moral obligations. To a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony. The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

Rise of the Sikh Power

Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment. Thereafter, he travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message. On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.

Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552). He created a new script gurmukhi and gave the Sikhs a written language. After his death Guru Amar Das Ji (1479-1574) followed in succession. He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das Ji took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later incorporated in the sacred writings. Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of Sikhism. He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru Hargobind, who maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power.

Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in 1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching the teachings of Guru Nanak. He passed away in 1661 and ordained his second son, Harkishan as the Guru. Guru Siri Har Krishan Ji got enlightenment in 1661. He gave his life while serving and healing the epidemic-stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breath his last is the one where, the renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi. Siri Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664. When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out. Gurdwara Sisganj in Delhi stands at the place of Guru Sahib's martyrdom and Gurdwara Rakabganj at the site of his cremation. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in 1666 and became guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of his death invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to a grinding halt.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630-1680), the great Maratha hero established the Maratha Empire in the Deccan fighting the powerful Mughals who were ruling India then. He motivated and combined the common man to fight against the domination of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by inculcating wisdom of pride and nationality in them. Shivaji showed his spirit at the young age of 18, when he overran a number of hill forts near Pune. He raised a strong army and navy, built and renovated forts. A regular element of his campaigns was his use of guerilla warfare.

He joined together the Maratha chiefs from Maval, Konkan and Desh regions for the promotion of Maharashtra Dharma and carved out a small kingdom. Shivaji became an inspirational leader to his people and took the responsibility of leadership of the Marathas. The audacious Shivaji provided a thrust to the Marathas and other Hindus with martial tactics, which the Marathas effectively used against the sultans of the peninsula as well as the Mughals.

The small kingdom established by Chhatrapati Shivaji known as "Hindavi Swaraja" (Sovereign Hindu state) grew and stretched from Attock in Northwest India (now in Pakistan) beyond Cuttack in East India, in course of time, to become the strongest power in India. Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, at the age of fifty from an attack of dysentery. His premature death at the age of 50 (April, 1680) created a blankness, though his place in Indian history has been documented, recognised and remembered.

The Decline of Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire started disintegrating with the death of Aurangazeb in 1707. His son and successor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was already old when he took the throne and was confronted with one rebellion after another. At that time, the Empire was facing challenges from the Marathas and the British. The inflated taxes and religious intolerance weakened the grip of Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was split into numerous independent or semi-independent states. Nadirshah of Iran sacked Delhi in 1739 and exposed the fragility of the power of Mughals. The empire rapidly shrank to the extent of being reduced to only a small district around Delhi. Yet they managed to rule at least some parts of India until 1850s, although they never regained the dignity and authority of their early days. The imperial dynasty became extinct with Bahadur Shah II who was deported to Rangoon by the British on suspicion of assisting the sepoy mutineers. He died there in 1862.

This marked the end of the medieval era of Indian history, and gradually, the British paramountcy over the nation increased and gave birth to the Indian struggle for freedom

 

Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)

In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen to come to India. The Aryans came from Central Europe and settled down in India.The Persians followed by the Iranians and Parsis immigrated to India. Then came the Moghuls and they too settled down permanently in India. Chengis Khan, the Mongolian, invaded and looted India many times. Alexander the Great too, came to conquer India but went back after a battle with Porus. He-en Tsang from China came in pursuit of knowledge and to visit the ancient Indian universities of Nalanda and Takshila. Columbus wanted to come to India, but instead landed on the shores of America. Vasco da Gama from Portugal came to trade his country's goods in return for Indian spices. The French came and established their colonies in India.

Lastly, the Britishers came and ruled over India for nearly 200 years. After the battle of Plassey in 1757, the British achieved political power in India. And their paramountcy was established during the tenure of Lord Dalhousie, who became the Governor- General in 1848. He annexed Punjab, Peshawar and the Pathan tribes in the north-west of India. And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established. And while the British power gained its heights during the middle of the 19^th century, the discontent of the local rulers, the peasantry, the intellectuals, common masses as also of the soldiers who became unemployed due to the disbanding of the armies of various states that were annexed by the British, became widespread. This soon broke out into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the 1857 Mutiny.

The Indian Mutiny of 1857

The conquest of India, which could be said to have begun with the Battle of Plassey (1757), was practically completed by the end of Dalhousie's tenure in 1856. It had been by no means a smooth affair as the simmering discontent of the people manifested itself in many localized revolt during this period. However, the Mutiny of 1857, which began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut, soon became widespread and posed a grave challenge to the British rule. Even though the British succeeded in crushing it within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers, the masses and the militia participated so enthusiastically that it came to be regarded as the First War of Indian Independence.

Introduction of zamindari system by the British, where the peasants were ruined through exorbitant charges made from them by the new class of landlords. The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of the British manufactured goods. The religion and the caste system which formed the firm foundation of the traditional Indian society was endangered by the British administration. The Indian soldiers as well as people in administration could not rise in hierarchy as the senior jobs were reserved for the Europeans. Thus, there was all-round discontent and disgust against the British rule, which burst out in a revolt by the 'sepoys' at Meerut whose religious sentiments were offended when they were given new cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, whose covering had to be stripped out by biting with the mouth before using them in rifles. The Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers, who refused to use such cartridges, were arrested which resulted in a revolt by their fellow soldiers on May 9, 1857.

The rebel forces soon captured Delhi and the revolt spread to a wider area and there was uprising in almost all parts of the country. The most ferocious battles were fought in Delhi, Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, Allahabad, Agra, Meerut and western Bihar. The rebellious forces under the commands of Kanwar Singh in Bihar and Bakht Khan in Delhi gave a stunning blow to the British. In Kanpur, Nana Sahib was proclaimed as the Peshwa and the brave leader Tantya Tope led his troops. Rani Lakshmibai was proclaimed the ruler of Jhansi who led her troops in the heroic battles with the British. The Hindus, the Muslims, the Sikhs and all the other brave sons of India fought shoulder to shoulder to throw out the British. The revolt was controlled by the British within one year, it began from Meerut on 10 May 1857 and ended in Gwalior on 20 June 1858.

 

The Buddhist Era

During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7^th and early 6^th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti. These states were ruled by vigorous personalities who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of neighbouring states. However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the monarchs were expanding.

Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480. The place of his birth was a grove known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges within Nepal. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern Asia.

 

Vedic civilization

Vedic civilization

The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India associated with the coming of Aryans. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with Aryans and Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas. The largely accepted view is that a section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BC and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed.

The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages. Gradually, the Aryans intermingled with the local people and a historic synthesis was worked out between the Aryan tribes and the original inhabitants. This synthesis broadly came to be known as Hinduism. The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

Ancient History of india

Ancient History

India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the progress that this part of the world had made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region.

The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. They had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end. Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the invasion by the Aryans, the recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.

Quit India Movement

Quit India Movement

In August 1942, Gandhiji started the 'Quit India Movement' and decided to launch a mass civil disobedience movement 'Do or Die' call to force the British to leave India. The movement was followed, nonetheless, by large-scale violence directed at railway stations, telegraph offices, government buildings, and other emblems and institutions of colonial rule. There were widespread acts of sabotage, and the government held Gandhi responsible for these acts of violence, suggesting that they were a deliberate act of Congress policy. However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the Congress was banned and the police and army were brought out to suppress the movement.

Meanwhile, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who stealthily ran away from the British detention in Calcutta, reached foreign lands and organized the Indian National Army (INA) to overthrow the British from India.

The Second World War broke out in September of 1939 and without consulting the Indian leaders, India was declared a warring state (on behalf of the British) by the Governor General. Subhash Chandra Bose, with the help of Japan, preceded fighting the British forces and not only freed Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the Britishers but also entered the north-eastern border of India. But in 1945 Japan was defeated and Netaji proceeded from Japan through an aeroplane to a place of safety but met with an accident and it was given out that he died in that air-crash itself.

"Give me blood and I shall give you freedom" - was one of the most popular statements made by him, where he urges the people of India to join him in his freedom movement.

Partition of India and Pakistan

At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee, came to power in Britain. The Labour Party was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for freedom. A Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March 1946, which after a careful study of the Indian political scenario, proposed the formation of an interim Government and convening of a Constituent Assembly comprising members elected by the provincial legislatures and nominees of the Indian states. An interim Government was formed headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. However, the Muslim League refused to participate in the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly and pressed for the separate state for Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, presented a plan for the division of India into India and Pakistan, and the Indian leaders had no choice but to accept the division, as the Muslim League was adamant.

Thus, India became free at the stroke of midnight, on August 14, 1947. (Since then, every year India celebrates its Independence Day on 15^th August). Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minster of free India and continued his term till 1964. Giving voice to the sentiments of the nation, Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said,

Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we will redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.... We end today a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.

Earlier, a Constituent Assembly was formed in July 1946, to frame the Constitution of India and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Constitution of India which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26^th November 1949. On January 26, 1950, the Constitution was came into force and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of India

The Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress from September 1920 to February 1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian Independence Movement. After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realised that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and thereby marring the administrative set up of the country. This movement was a great success as it got massive encouragement to millions of Indians. This movement almost shook the British authorities.

Simon Commission

The Non-cooperation movement failed. Therefore there was a lull in political activities. The Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 by the British Government to suggest further reforms in the structure of Indian Government. The Commission did not include any Indian member and the Government showed no intention of accepting the demand for Swaraj. Therefore, it sparked a wave of protests all over the country and the Congress as well as the Muslim League gave a call to boycott it under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. The crowds were lathi charged and Lala Lajpat Rai, also called Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab) died of the blows received in an agitation.

Civil Disobedience Movement

Mahatma Gandhi led the Civil Disobedience Movement that was launched in the Congress Session of December 1929. The aim of this movement was a complete disobedience of the orders of the British Government. During this movement it was decided that India would celebrate 26^th January as Independence Day all over the country. On 26^th January 1930, meetings were held all over the country and the Congress tricolour was hoisted. The British Government tried to repress the movement and resorted to brutal firing, killing hundreds of people. Thousands were arrested along with Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru. But the movement spread to all the four corners of the country Following this, Round Table Conferences were arranged by the British and Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference at London. But nothing came out of the conference and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived.

During this time, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were arrested on the charges of throwing a bomb in the Central Assembly Hall (which is now Lok Sabha) in Delhi, to demonstrate against the autocratic alien rule. They were hanged to death on March 23, 1931.

Indian Freedom Struggle

Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)

End of the East India Company

Consequent to the failure of the Revolt of 1857 rebellion, one also saw the end of the East India Company's rule in India and many important changes took place in the British Government's policy towards India which sought to strengthen the British rule through winning over the Indian princes, the chiefs and the landlords. Queen Victoria's Proclamation of November 1, 1858 declared that thereafter India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State.

The Governor General was given title of Viceroy, which meant the representative of the Monarch. Queen Victoria assumed the title of the Empress of India and thus gave the British Government unlimited powers to intervene in the internal affair of the Indian states. In brief, the British paramountcy over India, including the Indian States, was firmly established. The British gave their support to the loyal princes, zamindar and local chiefs but neglected the educated people and the common masses. They also promoted the other interests like those of the British merchants, industrialists, planters and civil servants. The people of India, as such, did not have any say in running the government or formulation of its policies. Consequently, people's disgust with the British rule kept mounting, which gave rise to the birth of Indian National Movement.

The leadership of the freedom movement passed into the hands of reformists like Raja Rammohan Roy, Bankim Chandra and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. During this time, the binding psychological concept of National Unity was also forged in the fire of the struggle against a common foreign oppressor.

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 which aimed at purging the society of all its evil practices. He worked for eradicating evils like sati, child marriage and purdah system, championed widow marriage and women's education and favoured English system of education in India. It was through his effort that sati was declared a legal offence by the British.

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, established the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in 1897. He championed the supremacy of Vedantic philosophy. His talk at the Chicago (USA) Conference of World Religions in 1893 made the westerners realize the greatness of Hinduism for the first time.

Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

The foundations of the Indian National Movement were laid by Suredranath Banerjee with the formation of Indian Association at Calcutta in 1876. The aim of the Association was to represent the views of the educated middle class, inspire the Indian community to take the value of united action. The Indian Association was, in a way, the forerunner of the Indian National Congress, which was founded, with the help of A.O. Hume, a retired British official. The birth of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked the entry of new educated middle-class into politics and transformed the Indian political horizon. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay in December 1885 under the president ship of Womesh Chandra Banerjee and was attended among others by and Badr-uddin-Tyabji.

At the turn of the century, the freedom movement reached out to the common unlettered man through the launching of the "Swadeshi Movement" by leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose. The Congress session at Calcutta in 1906, presided by Dadabhai Naoroji, gave a call for attainment of 'Swaraj' a type of self-government elected by the people within the British Dominion, as it prevailed in Canada and Australia, which were also the parts of the British Empire.

Meanwhile, in 1909, the British Government announced certain reforms in the structure of Government in India which are known as Morley-Minto Reforms. But these reforms came as a disappointment as they did not mark any advance towards the establishment of a representative Government. The provision of special representation of the Muslim was seen as a threat to the Hindu-Muslim unity on which the strength of the National Movement rested. So, these reforms were vehemently opposed by all the leaders, including the Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Subsequently, King George V made two announcements in Delhi: firstly, the partition of Bengal, which had been effected in 1905, was annulled and, secondly, it was announced that the capital of India was to be shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

The disgust with the reforms announced in 1909 led to the intensification of the struggle for Swaraj. While, on one side, the activists led by the great leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal waged a virtual war against the British, on the other side, the revolutionaries stepped up their violent activities There was a widespread unrest in the country. To add to the already growing discontent among the people, Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919, which empowered the Government to put people in jail without trial. This caused widespread indignation, led to massive demonstration and hartals, which the Government repressed with brutal measures like the Jaliawalla Bagh massacre, where thousand of unarmed peaceful people were gunned down on the order of General Dyer.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Jalianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919 was one of the most inhuman acts of the British rulers in India. The people of Punjab gathered on the auspicious day of Baisakhi at Jalianwala Bagh, adjacent to Golden Temple (Amritsar), to lodge their protest peacefully against persecution by the British Indian Government. General Dyer appeared suddenly with his armed police force and fired indiscriminately at innocent empty handed people leaving hundreds of people dead, including women and children.

After the First World War (1914-1918), Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the Congress. During this struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had developed the novel technique of non-violent agitation, which he called 'Satyagraha', loosely translated as 'moral domination'. Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu, also espoused a total moral philosophy of tolerance, brotherhood of all religions, non-violence (ahimsa) and of simple living. With this, new leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose also emerged on the scene and advocated the adoption of complete independence as the goal of the National Movement.

 

बिपिन चंद्र पाल का जीवन परिचय

भारतीय राष्ट्रवादी आंदोलन के प्रतिष्ठित नेता और बंगाल पुनर्जागरण के मुख्य वास्तुकार बिपिन चंद्र पाल का जन्म 7 नवंबर, 1858 को आज के बांग्लादेश में हुआ था. संपन्न हिंदू वैष्णव परिवार से संबंधित बिपिन चंद्र पाल एक राष्ट्रभक्त होने के साथ-साथ एक उत्कृष्ट वक्ता, लेखक और आलोचक भी थे.  बिपिन चंद्र पाल के पिता एक पारसी विद्वान थे. बहुत छोटी आयु में ही बिपिन चंद्र पाल ब्रह्म समाज के सदस्य बन गए थे. ब्रह्म समाज के अन्य सदस्यों की तरह बिपिन चंद्र पाल भी सामाजिक बुराइयों और रुढ़िवादी मानसिकता का विरोध करने लगे थे. चौदह वर्ष की आयु में ही बिपिन चंद्र पाल जाति के आधार पर होने वाले भेदभाव के विरुद्ध अपनी आवाज उठाने लगे थे. कुछ ही समय बाद उन्होंने अपने से ऊंची जाति वाली विधवा से विवाह संपन्न किया, जिसके कारण उन्हें अपने परिवार से अलग होना पड़ा. बिपिन चंद्र पाल के पुत्र बंबई टॉकीज के संस्थापकों में से एक थे.

बिपिन चंद्र पाल का कॅरियर

महात्मा गांधी के राजनीति में आने से पहले वर्ष 1905 में लाल बाल पाल (लाला लाजपत राय, बाल गंगाधर तिलक, बिपिन चंद्र पाल) पहला ऐसा क्रांतिकारी गुट था जिसने बंगाल विभाजन के समय अंग्रेजी हुकूमत के खिलाफ उपद्रव छेड़ा था. वर्ष 1907 में जब बाल गंगाधर तिलक अंग्रेजों द्वारा गिरफ्तार किए गए उस समय बिपिन चंद्र पाल भी इंग्लैंड चले गए और वहां जाकर इंडिया हाउस के साथ जुड़ गए तथा स्वराज नामक पत्रिका की स्थापना की. मदनलाल ढींगरा ने जब कर्जन वायली की हत्या की तब स्वराज के प्रकाशन पर भी प्रतिबंध लगा दिया गया जिसकी वजह से बिपिन चंद्र पाल को मानसिक और आर्थिक रूप से काफी नुकसान पहुंचा. इस घटना के बाद कुछ समय के लिए उन्होंने अपने उग्रवादी और राष्ट्रवादी क्रियाकलापों को विराम दे दिया. उन्होंने मनुष्य के सामाजिक और मानसिक विकास के प्रति ध्यान देना शुरू किया. बिपिन चंद्र पाल का सोचना था कि विभिन्न राष्ट्रों में एक-दूसरे के प्रति सद्भावना का विकास तभी संभव है जब लोगों में सामाजिक विकास को बल दिया जाए. बिपिन चंद्र पाल पहले ऐसे व्यक्ति थे जिन्होंने महात्मा गांधी और गांधी धर्म पर गहरी चोट की थी. प्रारंभ से ही बिपिन चंद्र पाल महात्मा गांधी के प्रति विरोध जाहिर करते रहे थे. वर्ष 1921 में भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के एक सम्मेलन में उन्होंने यह कहकर अपना विरोध सार्वजनिक किया कि महात्मा गांधी के विचार तार्किक ना होकर जादू पर आधारित हैं. बिपिन चंद्र पाल गांधी जी के घोर विरोधी थे. उन्होंने गांधी जी को संबोधित करते हुए कहा भी था कि आप सिर्फ जादू पर भरोसा करते हैं इसीलिए तर्क आपको समझ नहीं आते. जनता के मस्तिष्क में आप फिजूल की बातें भर देते हैं तभी वह हकीकत और तर्कों को सहन नहीं कर पाती. आप मंत्रों पर विचार करते हैं लेकिन मैं कोई साधु नहीं हूं इसीलिए ऐसा कुछ नहीं दे सकता. जब मैं पूरे सच को जानता हूं तो उसे आधा-अधूरा बताकर जन मानस को भटकाता नहीं हूं. लीयो टॉल्सटॉय से गांधी जी की तुलना करते हुए बिपिन चंद्र पाल का कहना था कि टॉल्स्टॉय एक ईमानदार अराजक दार्शनिक थे, जबकि गांधी जी एक कैथोलिक अनियंत्रित शासक के रूप में कार्य कर रहे हैं.

बिपिन चंद्र पाल का निधन

20 मई 1932 को बिपिन चंद्र पाल का निधन हो गया.

लाल बाल पाल की तिकड़ी ने अंग्रेजी हुकूमत के खिलाफ मौलिक विरोध प्रदर्शन किया. अंग्रेजी कपड़ा और उनके द्वारा बनाई गई वस्तुओं का दहन और बहिष्कार करना उनकी मुख्य गतिविधियां थीं. इसके अलावा फैक्ट्रियों में तालाबंदी और हड़ताल के द्वारा भी उन्होंने ब्रिटिश व्यवसाय को नुकसान पहुंचाने जैसे सफल प्रयास किए थे. बिपिन चंद्र पाल कई प्रतिष्ठित और चर्चित बंगाली नेताओं के संपर्क में आए. ब्रह्म समाज में रहते हुए बिपिन चंद्र पाल केशव चंद्र और सिबनाथ शास्त्री के बेहद करीबी बन गए थे.